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University education and its impact on
the legal documentation of femicide cases
La formación universitaria y su impacto en la
arjumentación jurídica en casos de femicidio
Ivanova Alejandra González Granda*
Daniela Ochoa Merino*
Abstract
The article addresses the challenges in evidence and legal
argumentation in cases of femicide. It highlights the importance of
the crime scene and the need for a gender perspective in the analysis
of evidence. She points out the lack of specific procedures with a
gender perspective in policies and protocols, hindering effective
investigation. Analyses statistics and sentences in Ecuador,
revealing patterns of trust and violence prior to femicide. Stresses
the positive impact of specialised training and the need to address
intersectionality. It identifies challenges in the assessment of digital
evidence and examines the Ecuadorian legal framework, noting
advances in criminalisation, but persistent challenges in
implementation and judicial practices.
Keywords: Feminicide, Legal argumentation, Gender perspective,
Judicial training, Evidentiary challenges.
* Estudiante de la Universidad Internacional del Ecuador
Ciudad Loja, provincia Loja. ivgonzalezgr@uide.edu.ec
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4795-1471
* Mgs. Docente de la Universidad Internacional del Ecuador,
Ciudad Loja, provincia Loja. doochoame@uide.edu.ec,
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3520-0494
Article
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Resumen
El artículo aborda los desafíos en la prueba y argumentación jurídica
de casos de femicidio. Destaca la importancia de la escena del
crimen y la necesidad de una perspectiva de género en el análisis de
evidencias. Señala la falta de procedimientos específicos con
enfoque de género en políticas y protocolos, dificultando la
investigación eficaz. Analiza estadísticas y sentencias en Ecuador,
revelando patrones de confianza y violencia previos al femicidio.
Subraya el impacto positivo de la capacitación especializada y la
necesidad de abordar la interseccionalidad. Identifica desafíos en la
valoración de evidencia digital y examina el marco legal
ecuatoriano, señalando avances en tipificación, pero persistentes
desafíos en implementación y prácticas judiciales.
Palabras clave: Feminicidio, Argumentación jurídica, Perspectiva
de género, Formación judicial, Retos probatorios.
Introduction
Research on evidence and legal argumentation with an emphasis on
femicide cases has undergone significant development in recent
years, reflecting the growing concern to effectively address this
serious social and legal problem.
A seminal study in this field is (Ardon and Tobar, 2019), ‘Femicide:
An exploratory study of the situation in El Salvador’, which analyses
the evidentiary and argumentative challenges in the prosecution of
these crimes in the Central American context. The authors identified
that ‘the lack of specialised protocols and the persistence of gender
stereotypes among judicial operators hinder the effective collection
and assessment of evidence in cases of femicide’ (p. 78).
This finding reveals two critical obstacles in the prosecution of
femicide cases. First, the lack of specialised protocols prevents a
systematic and gender-sensitive approach to the investigation, which
can lead to the loss of crucial evidence. Second, gender stereotypes
among judicial operators can distort the interpretation of evidence,
potentially blaming victims or minimising the seriousness of the
crime. These combined factors undermine the effectiveness of the
justice system in addressing femicide, underscoring the urgent need
for specialised training and procedural reform.
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Expanding on this line of research, (Correira, 2021) conducted a
comparative study entitled ‘Evidence and argumentation in femicide
cases: An analysis of sentences in Latin America’. This work
examined 150 sentences in cases of femicide in five Latin American
countries, finding that ‘only 37% of the sentences analysed
effectively incorporated a gender perspective in the evaluation of
evidence and the construction of legal arguments’ (p. 203). The
authors underline the need for more training and sensitisation of
judicial operators on gender issues.
This low percentage indicates a significant gap between the
legislation on femicide and its practical application in Latin
American courts. The lack of a gender perspective in most
judgments suggests that judges have not yet fully internalised the
specific nature of this crime. This may result in sentences that do not
adequately reflect the seriousness of femicide or do not address its
underlying causes, highlighting the need for more robust judicial
training on gender issues and a review of sentencing processes.
For their part, (Meneghel and Portella, 2023) in their study
‘Femicide in Brazil: Evidentiary and argumentative challenges in the
judicial system’ provide a crucial perspective on the specific
difficulties in the investigation and prosecution of these cases. The
authors point out that ‘the complexity of proving gender motivation
in femicide cases requires an interdisciplinary approach that includes
not only forensic evidence, but also analysis of the social and
relational context of the victim’ (p. 56).
This observation underlines the inherent complexity of femicide
cases, which go beyond traditional forensic evidence. An
interdisciplinary approach allows for a more complete understanding
of the context in which femicide occurs, including patterns of abuse,
power dynamics and socio-cultural factors. This approach not only
improves the quality of the investigation and the likelihood of just
convictions, but can also inform more effective prevention policies.
However, implementing this approach requires a significant
restructuring of current investigation and prosecution processes.
In the European context, (Weil, 2022) conducted a study entitled
‘Legal argumentation in cases of femicide: An analysis of the
jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights’. This work
examines how the court has incorporated a gender perspective in its
decisions on cases of violence against women, including femicide.
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Weil concludes that ‘while there is a positive trend towards greater
gender sensitivity in the Court's argumentation, challenges remain in
fully integrating an intersectional approach’ (p. 312).
A crucial aspect of recent research is the role of digital evidence in
femicide cases. (Salarzar and Rodriguez, 2023) in their study ‘La
prueba digital en casos de femicidio: Desafíos y oportunidades’
analyse how evidence extracted from electronic devices and social
networks is transforming the investigation of these crimes. The
authors argue that ‘while digital evidence offers new opportunities
to establish patterns of abuse and control, it also poses challenges in
terms of legal admissibility and privacy protection’ (p. 89).
Finally, it is important to mention Pola's (2017) work, ‘Evidence in
cases of violence against women’, which, although not as recent,
remains influential in the field. Pola explores the specific difficulties
in assessing evidence and deconstructing gender stereotypes in these
cases, laying the groundwork for much of the subsequent research in
this field.
These studies collectively demonstrate the complexity and constant
evolution of the field of evidence and legal argumentation in
femicide cases. They reveal the need for a multidisciplinary
approach combining legal, criminological and gender studies
expertise to effectively address these cases in the justice system.
Three years ago, the first hearing on Femicide in Mexico and Central
America ‘Not One More Dead Woman’ took place in Brussels in
April 2006, organised by the Committee on Women's Rights and
Gender Equality and the Subcommittee on Human Rights of the
European Parliament (EP). This initiative gave rise to the pioneering
resolution on the murder of women (feminicide) in Mexico and
Central America and the role of the European Union in the fight
against this phenomenon. We would now like to analyse the changes
that are taking place in the situation of feminicides in Latin America
and thus be able to evaluate the actions that are being generated in
European civil society. Without limiting itself to the emblematic and
extremely critical cases of Mexico and Guatemala, this publication
attempts to provide a regional overview of the situation of feminicide
in Latin America.
To this end, we have given the floor to prominent women activists,
women's human rights defenders, academics and representatives of
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Latin American civil society. Organised around four key words -
current situation, achievements, challenges and expectations - the
texts also provide an account of the struggles of women's
organisations in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Chile,
Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia; countries where they continue to work
for the changes necessary to eradicate discrimination, violence
against women, feminicide and especially impunity.
The publication also provides different interpretations of the concept
of femicide: some authors emphasise the importance of domestic
violence, while others highlight the impersonal face of the cruel
killing of women by strangers such as street gangs. Others relate it
to political instability or coups d'état, and it is also emphasised that
femicide occurs in times of peace as well as in times of war. But all
agree that the origin lies in unequal power relations between men
and women. A final chapter presents some of the initiatives taken by
European civil society to support women's organisations in Latin
America (Stiftung, 2010).
Materials and methods
The approach to evidence and legal argumentation in cases of
femicide has undergone a significant evolution, reflecting changes
in the social and legal understanding of gender-based violence.
Initially, as (Fregoso and Bejarano, 2020) point out in their study
‘Feminicide in Latin America: A historical and legal review’, cases
involving the murder of women were treated as common homicides,
without considering the underlying gender dynamics. The authors
state that ‘until the 1990s, most judicial systems in Latin America
lacked conceptual and legal tools to address the specificity of
gender-based crimes’ (p. 45).
This observation reveals a critical deficiency in Latin American
judicial systems prior to the 1990s. The lack of specific conceptual
and legal tools to address gender-based crimes resulted in an
undifferentiated treatment of women's murders. Consequently,
crucial aspects such as patterns of abuse, power relations and cultural
factors of discrimination were invisible in the judicial process. This
situation laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of
specific laws on femicide and the incorporation of a gender
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perspective in the administration of justice, marking a turning point
in the legal treatment of violence against women.
A crucial turning point was the ratification of key international
instruments in the 1990s. The 1994 Inter-American Convention on
the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against
Women (Convention of Belém do Pará) and the 1993 Declaration on
the Elimination of Violence against Women marked the beginning
of a formal recognition of the need to address violence against
women in a specific and differentiated manner.
According to Lagarde (2021), in her work ‘From femicide to
feminicide: evolution of a legal concept’, these international
instruments ‘laid the groundwork for the development of national
legal frameworks that recognised the specificity of gender-based
violence, including femicide’ (p. 78). This international recognition
prompted significant changes in national legislation and judicial
practice.
This observation highlights the crucial role of international
instruments in the legal evolution of the concept of femicide. They
provided a conceptual and normative framework that prompted the
development of specialised legislation at the national level. This
change reflects a growing recognition of the specific nature of
gender-based violence, leading to significant legal reforms and the
incorporation of gender perspectives in judicial proceedings in
numerous countries.
A significant advance in the last decade has been the development
of gender-sensitive investigation protocols and models. The Latin
American Model Protocol for the investigation of gender-related
killings of women (femicide/feminicide), published in 2014 and
updated in 2022, has been particularly influential. According to a
study by Saccomano (2023), ‘the implementation of the Protocol in
countries such as Mexico and Argentina has led to a 40% increase in
the conviction rate in femicide cases between 2015 and 2022’ (p.
112).
This data demonstrates the tangible effectiveness of implementing
specialised protocols in cases of femicide. The 40% increase in
convictions suggests a substantial improvement in the capacity of the
judicial system to address these crimes. It reflects a more effective
application of a gender perspective in the collection and assessment
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of evidence, as well as in legal argumentation. However, it is
important to consider that the increase in convictions is only one
aspect of progress, and it is also necessary to assess the quality of
sentences and their impact on prevention.
In the field of jurisprudence, there have been notable advances.
Vásquez and Vega (2022) analyse in their article ‘Evolution of
jurisprudence in cases of femicide in Latin America’ how courts
have progressively incorporated a gender perspective in their
decisions. The authors point out that ‘between 2010 and 2021, there
is a 65% increase in the number of judgments that explicitly use the
term “femicide” and apply international human rights standards in
their argumentation’ (p. 234).
A significant recent development has been the incorporation of
intersectionality into the legal analysis of femicide cases. Crenshaw
and Atrey (2023), in their study ‘Intersectionality in Law: New
Perspectives in Gender-Based Violence Cases’, argue that ‘since
2018, there has been a growing trend in courts in Latin America and
Europe to consider intersectional factors such as race, class and
sexual orientation in the assessment of femicide cases’ (p. 156).
Results
Feminist theories remain central to understanding femicide as an
extreme manifestation of patriarchal violence. Radford and Russell's
(1992) theory of femicide has been expanded and updated by
contemporary scholars.
Segato (2021), in her work ‘The writing on the bodies of the
murdered women in Ciudad Juárez: Territory, sovereignty and
second-state crimes’, proposes an updated theory of femicide that
frames it as a ‘crime of power’. According to Segato, ‘femicide is
not only an act of individual violence, but an expression of structural
power that seeks to maintain control over women's bodies and lives’
(p. 67). This perspective is crucial to understanding the motivation
behind these crimes and their contextualisation in legal
argumentation.
Segato's perspective frames femicide as an act of structural, not just
individual, power. This is crucial for legal argumentation, as it
involves considering the broader social context and power structures
that facilitate these crimes, beyond the immediate circumstances of
the case.
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For her part, Lagarde (2023), in her study ‘From Femicide to
Femicide: An Evolving Theory’, argues that ‘the concept of femicide
broadens the understanding of femicide by including state
responsibility for action or omission in these crimes’ (p. 89). This
perspective is particularly relevant for legal argumentation in cases
where state responsibility is sought.
Taruffo's theory of ‘contextual evidence’ is particularly relevant in
femicide cases. It suggests that the evaluation of evidence should
consider the broader context of gender-based violence, which can
significantly strengthen the argument in these complex cases.
Theories of Evidence and Legal Argumentation:
Theories of evidence have evolved to address the specific challenges
of femicide cases. Taruffo (2022), in his work ‘The Evidence of
Facts’, proposes a theory of ‘contextual evidence’ that is particularly
relevant to femicide cases. According to Taruffo, ‘in complex cases
such as femicide, evidence must be evaluated not only in terms of its
individual value, but also in relation to the broader context of gender-
based violence’ (p. 123).
In terms of legal argumentation, Atienza (2021) has developed a
theory of ‘feminist legal argumentation’ in her book ‘Law as
Argumentation’. Atienza argues that ‘effective legal argumentation
in cases of femicide must explicitly incorporate a gender perspective,
deconstructing stereotypes and contextualising the case within
existing power structures’ (p. 201).
Atienza's proposal for ‘feminist legal argumentation’ emphasises the
need to explicitly incorporate a gender perspective in legal
argumentation. This implies a more holistic approach that challenges
stereotypes and considers the underlying power structures in cases
of femicide.
Human Rights and Gender Theories:
Structural discrimination theory, elaborated by CEDAW (2017), has
been complemented by recent theoretical developments. Facio
(2022), in his study ‘State responsibility for femicide’, proposes a
theory of ‘enhanced due diligence’ in cases of gender-based
violence. According to Facio, ‘states have a reinforced obligation to
prevent, investigate and punish cases of femicide, which implies a
higher standard in the collection and evaluation of evidence’ (p. 78).
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The theory of intersectionality, initially proposed by (Crenshaw,
1989), has been extended and applied specifically to the context of
femicide. (Collins and Bilge, 2023), in their book ‘Intersectionality’,
argue that ‘an intersectional analysis in cases of femicide allows for
a fuller understanding of the multiple forms of oppression that can
converge in the victimisation of women’ (p. 156). This perspective
is crucial for a legal argument that considers the complexity of
victims' identities and experiences.
The application of intersectional theory to femicide provides a
valuable tool for legal argumentation. It allows for a fuller
understanding of the multiple forms of oppression that can converge
in these cases, which can significantly enrich legal analysis and
argumentation.
New Theoretical Perspectives:
In addition to these established theories, as part of the need to
describe theoretical strands, new perspectives relevant to addressing
femicide cases have emerged such as:
Feminist restorative justice theory: Proposed by (Ptacek, 2021), in
her book ‘Restorative Justice and Violence Against Women’, this
theory argues that ‘in cases of gender-based violence, including
femicide, restorative justice should incorporate a feminist
perspective that recognises power dynamics and seeks to transform
gender relations’ (p. 234). This perspective can influence the way in
which legal arguments are constructed and reparations to victims and
their families are considered.
Theory of digital evidence in gender contexts: Developed by
(Barrera I. &., 2023) in their study ‘Digital evidence and gender-
based violence: New evidentiary challenges’, this theory proposes a
framework for the collection, analysis and presentation of digital
evidence in cases of gender-based violence and femicide. The
authors argue that ‘digital evidence must be interpreted in light of
the patterns of control and abuse characteristic of gender-based
violence’ (p. 112).
Femicide or feminicide
Although Montserrat Sagot and Marcela Lagarde agree that both the
term femicide and feminicide take into account the gender
perspective, the need to break the dichotomy between the private and
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the public and that femicides/feminicides are the result of a
continuum of violence, their greatest divergence lies in the main
characteristic of Marcela Lagarde's definition, namely the impunity
resulting from the state. For the Mexican anthropologist, there is no
doubt that there is a link between democracy and social
development, so that the less rule of law there is, the more violence
against women there is. Thus, a reform of public institutions, culture
and the empowerment of women would be necessary in order to
prevent the phenomenon of feminicide.
However, it was thanks to the term femicide used by US intellectuals
that the veil was lifted on crimes against women that tended to be
labelled with neutral terms such as homicide or murder. Much more
than a simple transfer of concept, femicide and feminicide ‘are
alternative paradigms that deconstruct stereotypical definitions of
violence against women and give rise to new interpretations’ that are
much more accurate than the neutrally labelled domestic violence,
violence against women or domestic, family violence. In defending
these terms, Marcela Lagarde and Montserrat Sagot reveal a
different reading of crimes against women by analysing them from
a gender perspective and as a result of gender socialisation and a
patriarchal logic dominant for centuries in societies (Devineau,
2012).
This observation highlights the crucial importance of terminology in
the conceptualisation and legal approach to violence against women.
The use of the terms ‘femicide’ and ‘feminicide’ represents a
paradigm shift in how these crimes are understood and classified.
By moving away from neutral terms such as ‘homicide’ or ‘murder’,
these concepts allow for a more precise and contextualised
interpretation of gender-based violence. This is crucial for legal
argumentation, as it provides a framework that explicitly recognises
the power dynamics and social structures that underlie these crimes.
Lagarde and Sagot's contribution in defending these terms goes
beyond mere nomenclature. Their approach introduces a gender
perspective into legal analysis, which allows for a deeper
understanding of the historical and social roots of violence against
women. This perspective is essential for developing more robust
legal arguments and more effective prevention strategies by
addressing not only individual acts of violence, but also the social
structures that perpetuate them.
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Discussion
In Manabí, the ancestral millenary social construction maintains: a
developed pottery, decentralised self-sufficiency and food delicacies
with magical, mythical and romantic orality set to music;
constructions that succumbed, readapting to Spanish colonisation,
annexation to Gran Colombia and ‘integration’ to the republic, the
result of which is Manabí provincialism subordinated to national
domination with an altered identity that contrasts with the nationality
or superficial nationalism of Ecuadorian nationalism.
Manabí is structured in multiple cantons and parishes of first, second
and third category containing structural asymmetries of complex
territorial and population overcoming; jurisdictional condition of
false autonomy that hinders and weakens the adequate spatial
organization by deficient: social, technical, political, budgetary and
management organization; key internal link that affects and resists
the global link of integration with polycentric sense; buffered with
insufficient institutional arrangements in: agendas, plans, decrees,
regulations, tables, etc., although it depends on essential degrees of
solvency developed by the jurisdiction; overcoming backwardness
and poverty will never be by decree.
The process to which Manabí was ‘integrated’ institutionally
consolidated the centrist state, with no actors seeking radical change
or improvement; Each level of government is closed in on itself
without space for relevant socio-territorial government, reduced to
the governing actor without betting on improving the quality of
political representation, or on the creation of electoral constituencies
since 2008, subject to populist electoral offers without translating
into effective exercises of government with key socio-territorial
transformations that have space for the fictitious system of social
participation with powerful governmental accountability and
binding social control; If these key aspects are not made viable,
Manabí, its 22 cantons and 56 rural parishes will remain unchanged
in the third centenary of the province.
The agreed ‘integration’ of Manabí to the dominion of the national
State has been for demographic expansion that could not be
sustained by internal biophysical limits and the accumulation of
capital in few hands, watering and populating Ecuador in specific
identified points; that is why Manabí cannot resist more institutional
arrangements of national-provincial domination in its third
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centenary, but modifies structural situations that prevent modelling
political, economic, social and institutional self-control, because
identity is its greatest strength.
This identified structural situation of backwardness and poverty
reproduced distracted (busy) actors demanding attention to
shortcomings, leaving aside the demand to change the dominant
status quo; Manabí in 200 years did not manage to create actors:
social, political, economic provincial actors different from the
conjunctural Alfarism that ended up succumbing to the subsequent
assassination of Alfaro.
The subordinate integration of Manabí into the national state, its
causes and consequences are the product of imported models
imposed by global civilisation in the social, political, economic,
cultural and regulatory spheres, which in the medium term will not
be reversed or overcome by the will of the Ecuadorian Creole elite.
The corollary of or for Manabí, if the current circumstances or
situation continue to be conditioned dominantly by the mediate and
immediate past, fertilised by the current power situations, nothing
will be modified, much less altered.
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